21203

Canada Moderate

Land surveyors

Land surveyors plan, direct and conduct legal surveys to establish the location of real property boundaries, contours and other natural or human-made features, and prepare and maintain cross-sectional drawings, official plans, records and documents pertaining to these surveys. They are employed by federal, provincial and municipal governments, private sector land surveying establishments, real estate development, natural resource, engineering and construction firms, or they may be self-employed.

Employment Outlooks

Economic Region Outlooks

Abitibi - Témiscamingue

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Abitibi - Témiscamingue region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Abitibi - Témiscamingue region:

Approximately 90 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 92%
- Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction (NAICS 21): 8%

Annapolis Valley

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Annapolis Valley region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Annapolis Valley region:

Approximately 50 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Construction (NAICS 23): 61%
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 21%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 17%

Athabasca - Grande Prairie - Peace River

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Athabasca - Grande Prairie - Peace River region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a few new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Athabasca - Grande Prairie - Peace River region:

Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): more than 95%

Avalon Peninsula

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Banff - Jasper - Rocky Mountain House

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Banff - Jasper - Rocky Mountain House region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a few new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Banff - Jasper - Rocky Mountain House region:

Approximately 100 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): more than 95%

Bas-Saint-Laurent

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Calgary region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Calgary region:

Approximately 450 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 69%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 23%

Campbellton - Miramichi

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Camrose - Drumheller

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Cape Breton region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Cape Breton region:

Approximately 40 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Construction (NAICS 23): 53%
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 47%

Capitale-Nationale

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Capitale-Nationale region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Capitale-Nationale region:

Approximately 330 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 66%
- Provincial and territorial public administration (NAICS 912): 19%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 12%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Centre-du-Québec

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Chaudière - Appalaches

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Chaudière - Appalaches region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Chaudière - Appalaches region:

Approximately 130 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 62%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 27%
- Provincial and territorial public administration (NAICS 912): 8%

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Côte-Nord and Nord-du-Québec regions for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Several positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Côte-Nord and Nord-du-Québec regions:

Approximately 70 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Construction (NAICS 23): 52%
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 48%

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Edmonton region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a few new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Edmonton region:

Approximately 420 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 62%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 23%
- Oil and gas extraction (NAICS 211, 213): 6%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 5%

Edmundston - Woodstock

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Fredericton - Oromocto

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Gaspésie - Îles-de-la-Madeleine

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Hamilton - Niagara Peninsula

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Hamilton - Niagara Peninsula region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Hamilton - Niagara Peninsula region:

Approximately 160 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 67%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 21%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 12%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Kingston - Pembroke

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Kitchener - Waterloo - Barrie

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Kitchener - Waterloo - Barrie region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Kitchener - Waterloo - Barrie region:

Approximately 190 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 81%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 14%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 5%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Lanaudière region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Lanaudière region:

Approximately 130 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 74%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 26%

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Laurentides region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are several unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Laurentides region:

Approximately 180 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 65%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 35%

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the census metropolitan area of Montréal, including the Laval region, for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the census metropolitan area of Montréal, including the Laval region,:

Approximately 680 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.

Lethbridge - Medicine Hat

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Lower Mainland - Southwest

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Lower Mainland - Southwest region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Lower Mainland - Southwest region:

Approximately 530 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 72%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 15%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 6%

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Mauricie region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment is expected to remain relatively stable.
Several positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Mauricie region:

Approximately 80 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 57%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 42%

Moncton - Richibucto

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Montérégie region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Montérégie region:

Approximately 330 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 49%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 41%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 7%

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the census metropolitan area of Montréal for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the census metropolitan area of Montréal:

Approximately 680 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.

Muskoka - Kawarthas

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Nord-du-Québec

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Côte-Nord and Nord-du-Québec regions for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Several positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Côte-Nord and Nord-du-Québec regions:

Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Construction (NAICS 23): 52%
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 48%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the North Shore region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the North Shore region:

Approximately 50 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 70%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 30%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Northeast region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment is expected to remain relatively stable.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Northeast region:

Approximately 250 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 62%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 20%
- Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction (NAICS 21): 17%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Notre Dame - Central Bonavista Bay

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Ottawa region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Ottawa region:

Approximately 220 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 68%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 20%

The employment outlook will be Limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Outaouais region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Outaouais region:

Approximately 100 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Construction (NAICS 23): 41%
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 39%
- Federal government public administration (NAICS 911): 16%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Regina - Moose Mountain

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Saguenay - Lac-Saint-Jean

The employment outlook will be Very limited for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Saguenay - Lac-Saint-Jean region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment decline will lead to the loss of some positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Saguenay - Lac-Saint-Jean region:

Approximately 120 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 51%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 49%

Saint John - St. Stephen

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Saskatoon - Biggar

The employment outlook will be Good for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Saskatoon - Biggar region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to several new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Saskatoon - Biggar region:

Approximately 70 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 80%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 20%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

South Coast - Burin Peninsula

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Southern region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
Not many positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Southern region:

Approximately 20 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): more than 95%

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Stratford - Bruce Peninsula

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Swift Current - Moose Jaw

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Swift Current - Moose Jaw region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a small number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Swift Current - Moose Jaw region:

Approximately 20 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): more than 95%

Thompson - Okanagan

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Thompson - Okanagan region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Thompson - Okanagan region:

Approximately 190 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 72%
- Local, municipal, regional, aboriginal and other public administration (NAICS 913-919): 9%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 8%
- Ambulatory health care services and hospitals (NAICS 621-622): 7%

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Toronto region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Toronto region:

Approximately 720 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 69%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 20%

Vancouver Island and Coast

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Vancouver Island and Coast region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a moderate number of new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Vancouver Island and Coast region:

Approximately 220 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 74%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 20%

West Coast - Northern Peninsula - Labrador

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Windsor - Sarnia

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Wood Buffalo - Cold Lake

The employment outlook will be Moderate for land surveyors (NOC 21203) in the Wood Buffalo - Cold Lake region for the 2025-2027 period.

The following factors contributed to this outlook:

Employment growth will lead to a few new positions.
A moderate number of positions will become available due to retirements.
There are a moderate number of unemployed workers with recent experience in this occupation.

Here are some key facts about land surveyors in the Wood Buffalo - Cold Lake region:

Approximately 70 people worked in this occupation in May 2021.
Land surveyors mainly work in the following sectors:
- Professional, scientific and technical services (NAICS 54): 63%
- Construction (NAICS 23): 19%
- Oil and gas extraction (NAICS 211, 213): 18%

Yorkton - Melville

An employment outlook has not been assigned to this occupation in this region due to low levels of employment.

Salary Information

National wage data for this occupation

Entry-level

$29.00

/hr

Typical

$42.20

/hr

Experienced

$60.51

/hr

Average: $43.30/hr

96.0% of workers in this occupation receive non-wage benefits

Source: Job Bank Canada. Wages may vary by region and experience.

Examples

Illustrative Examples

cadastral surveyor
Canada lands surveyor
city surveyor
land surveyor
property surveyor

All Examples

cadastral surveyor
Canada lands surveyor
city surveyor
commissioned land surveyor
country surveyor
land survey supervisor
land surveying party chief
land surveyor
legal surveyor
pipeline surveyor
port surveyor
professional land surveyor
property surveyor
provincial land surveyor
railway surveyor

Main Duties

Main Duties

This group performs some or all of the following duties:
Develop survey plans, methods and procedures for conducting legal surveys
Plan, direct and supervise or conduct surveys to establish and mark legal boundaries of properties, parcels of lands, provincial and Canada Lands, Aboriginal land claims, wellsites, mining claims, utility rights-of-way, roadways and highways
Survey and lay out subdivisions for rural and urban development
Determine precise locations using electronic distance measuring equipment, global positioning systems (GPS), and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)/drones
Analyze, manage and display data using geographic information systems (GIS) and computer-aided design and drafting (CAD)
Record all measurements and other information obtained during survey activities
Prepare or supervise the preparation and compilation of all data, plans, charts, records and documents related to surveys of real property boundaries
Certify and assume liability for surveys made to establish real property boundaries
Advise, provide consultation and testify as an expert witness on matters related to legal surveys
May supervise other land surveyors, and land survey technologists and technicians.

Requirements

Employment Requirements

A bachelor's degree in geomatics engineering or survey engineering or a college diploma in survey science or geomatics technology with additional academic credits and successful completion of equivalent examinations set by a regional board of examiners for land surveyors is required.
A one- to three-year articling period is required.
Successful completion of professional land surveyor examinations is required.
A federal or provincial land surveyor's licence is required.